Piltdown Man Hoax

The story of the Piltdown man started in the early 1900s, in the rural county of Sussex, located in southeast England. An amateur archaeologist named Charles Dawson was digging in a village called Piltdown, when he discovered the remains of a skull that was thick and appeared primitive. This discovery would be the first in the Piltdown hoax. Due to the structure of the skull and the ape-like jawbone, and teeth of a human, this was thought to be the connection between apes and humans. The English people of Piltdown took a lot of pride in the discovery of this connection between modern humans and apes, because the earliest Englishman was now discovered. In 1912, we knew very little about human fossils and now they had made a connection that proofed Charles Darwin’s theory to be true. Sir Arthur Smith Woodward an eminent geologist, now realized that this might be a crucial discovery and joined Dawson in digging for more remains. Woodward believed the jaw and skull did belong together, but there was a crucial piece missing which was the canine tooth. A year later a canine tooth was found in Piltdown and matched the jaw based on the shape and size of the tooth. In 1917, another discovery had been made which consist of another skull and tooth, this would be known as Piltdown man two. In 1953, Piltdown man was announced to be a fake and this lead to a scientific world uproar. Kenneth Oakley was the person to put the Piltdown hoax to the test. Oakley applied a chemical test to help authenticate and date the fossils. The test revealed the Piltdown man to be much younger than expected. Other test conducted by the Natural History Museum also revealed that it was bogus, the skull was stained and the teeth had been filed down. The skull was also a different age compared to the jaw, and Oakley revealed a forgery on a level that had never been seen before.  The jaw was not human and could have been orangutan, and the teeth were filed down flat as a disguise. Every single one of the 40 findings at Piltdown had been forged and planted. A prime suspect would be Charles Dawson, because he was the first person to find the fossils and the last. Many people believed Dawson was just trying to make a name for himself as the popular young amateur archeologist that made an amazing discovery. The most famous person linked to the Piltdown hoax was the great writer and doctor, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was the creator of Sherlock Holmes, but most people didn’t know that he was a medical doctor. He was also a person who collected fossils, and could have been one of the perpetrators of one of the greatest hoaxes of all time, the Piltdown Man.

The fact that Piltdown Man was a fraud has been repeatedly used as evidence that the entirety of evolution is a fraud. It is true that Piltdown Man was a fraud and had confused paleontologists for many years. Many scientists accepted it, while others were skeptical from the start. Since nature doesn't lie, many scientists took items from the field and tried to explain the discovery. When something falls too far outside the expected it is thought to be skeptical. In the case of Piltdown Man, some experts in the field almost immediately began to question the find. Piltdown Man was created with the objective of fooling scientists, but it only succeeded for a short time. After 40 years, the fact that it had been revealed as a fake is evidence that science is capable of seeing through illusion. This occurred by acknowledging errors, and refining its ideas by use of the scientific method. It also shows that theories like evolution are based on solid and consistent evidence. Every piece from Piltdown were found fraud by experts in evolution, doing the work of evolutionists.

Scientist had new tests to use against the bones found in Piltdown, which consist of a fluorine absorption test on the fossils. This type of test showed that the fossils were rather young, less than 100,000 years old. They also found that the staining on the bones was superficial, and all the artifacts had also been stained. A steel type of blade was used on the fossils to make cuts, and the teeth of Piltdown Man had also been filed down with evidence of scratch marks, it was made to a specific shape. These teeth had been proven fraud, as they were looked at by a microscope the scientists could see criss-cross scratches. An x-ray showed the lower contact surfaces of the roots were positioned correctly. The x-ray also revealed the roots were unnaturally similar in length and disposition. The jaw bone was from a female orangutan and had been modified to hide the pieces that didn't match with the skull. The front of the jaw had been broken off to hide that fact that it was an ape jaw and not a human jaw. The findings were proven to be geological error. The new technological advances helped scientists in many ways to identify the Piltdown Man as a fraud.

I don't think it is possible to remove human factors in science, because as humans we make mistakes. I think human factors can lead us to curiosity and lead us to finding mistakes from the past, and going back to fix those mistakes or theories. In this case, human factor played a big role in proving the Piltdown Man fossils to be fraud. I think having mistakes in science leads scientist to find new discoveries, and move forward. It may be possible to remove human factors from science, but if we removed it then science would not be science.

I think a life lesson to learn from the Piltdown Man would be to always try and correct mistakes made so we can advance into the future. If false actions are not taken into consideration, then we won't be able to surpass any failures and instead just cover it up. There will always be mistakes made by humans and humans are not perfect, and have many faults. If we fix our mistakes then we can achieve many goals in life.

Source:

http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/piltdown.html

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3202_hoax.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOxHLWMiULU&feature=related

Primates

        The lemur is a primitive primate that can be found in Madagascar. The term Lemur not only applies to the typical lemurs but also to the avahis, sifakas, indri, and aye-aye of Madagascar. The island country of Madagascar is located on the southeastern coast of Africa. The island consist of three parallel longitudinal zones-the central plateau, the coastal strip on the east side, and the low plateaus and plains in the west. The steep eastern plateau has numerous short, torrential rivers which discharge either into the coastal lagoons or directly into the sea over waterfalls or rapids. The western side of the plateau is crossed by longer and larger rivers, which bring large deposits of fertile alluvium down into the plains. The island at one point was covered with evergreen and deciduous forest, but now only little remains except on the eastern escarpment and in some areas in the west. The forest was cut in order to clear for rice fields, to obtain building materials, and to export valuables such as ebony, rosewood, and sandalwood. A small part of the island is covered with prairie grasses and bamboo or small thin trees. The south part of the island is arid and grows thorn trees, giant cacti, dwarf baobab trees, succulents and other drought-resistant plants. Due to the island's isolation many primitive primates have survived and evolved into unique forms. It's been estimated that about 40 species of lemurs live on Madagascar.

The lemur has a unique trait called a "dental comb", which is formed by forward projecting lower incisors and canines. The modified teeth are used by the lemurs for grooming similar to a hair comb and feeding. The structure of the jaw has evolved independently in different types of mammals through convergent evolution. In most mammals the toothcombs include incisors only, but in lemuriform primates the jaw includes incisors and canine teeth that tilt forward by a canine-shaped first premolar. The toothcomb can also be used for food procurement and bark gouging. Due to the islands many plants, trees and shrubs, the lemurs jaw has adapted to the surrounding environment. The lemur has a wide variety of foods such as leaves, fruits, buds, bark and shoots. Lemurs are also known to eat insects and even small animals when fruits are not in season, and when conditions are really harsh lemur's hibernate which helps contributes to their survival. The lemur has a dental formula of 2.1.3.3, and has  reduced incisors and tooth comb when compared to the spider monkey.

       The spider monkey is a smaller primate that can be found in the forest areas of southern Mexico through central and South America to brazil. The habitat of the spider monkey consist of tropical rainforests, evergreen, semi deciduous and mangrove forest. The current forest where the spider monkey's are located is in danger due to the removal of the forest to make way for new farm land. The spider monkeys are well adapted to the high treetops as they are strong and agile. The spider monkey has a wide variety of foods, such as nuts, fruits, leaves, bird eggs, spiders and other insects. The spider monkey or new world monkey, has a dental formula of 2.1.3.3 (two incisors, one canine, three premolars, and three molars). The maxilla and mandible of the monkey are equally the same, and the assortment of teeth allows the primates to have a diverse diet. The incisors teeth of the monkey help with cutting into food, and the canines are stabbing teeth that can be used as a weapon. The premolars and molars are mainly used for shearing and crushing food. The spider monkey has a unique dental formula which has evolved due to the environment the primate lives in. The diet of the spider monkey has also contributed to the evolution of the primates teeth, which is due to the lack of dietary specialization and reflects the shape and size of the primates teeth. This type of dentition was created from the varied diet of the primate, and has contributed to their overall success during the last 50 million years.

        The next primate is the baboon also known as the Old World Monkey. There are 5 different species of baboons and each hierarchical troop of baboons can have up to 300 members. Baboons can be found in the savanna and semiarid environments in Africa to Arabia. Very few baboons can be found in tropical forests. They have also been spotted in some open country parts of Africa in the Sahara southward, and in southern Africa south of the Zambezi River. These locations consist of a desert environment which is common throughout the Sahara. The Sahara is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, Atlas Mountains, Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea. The baboon eats a variety of plants and animals which includes grass and grass seed, fruits, pods, roots, and tubers. They are also known to eat rodents, birds, gazelle fawns, and in some parts of South Africa they kill lambs and are known as crop raiders. The dentition formula for a baboon is 2.1.2.3, which is acquired from the primate having a slightly different diet compared to New World Monkeys. The dental pattern and formation of the jaw are similar to humans with some key changes. The difference between humans and baboons is the more elongate arch form, prominent maxillary canine crowns, and the second and third molar crowns are greater size compared to the first molar crowns. The baboon males have powerful jaws with longer canine teeth, which can be effective weapons in defense against predators and competition with other males. This type of trait was acquired from the environment the baboon lives in. Due to the primate's diet which consist of eating other animals as compared to the New World Monkeys, they have developed the longer canines which help killing the varied animals in their diet. Since the monkey competes with other primates for the same desirable foods  this leads to the killing of other monkeys, young chimpanzees and even flamingos. Therefore, the dentition formula has evolved into a 2.1.2.3 pattern due the varied diet of the baboon.

      The lesser ape also known as a gibbon, is a smaller ape that is found in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. The environment where the gibbon can be found is generally composed of broad-leaved trees and wet tropical uplands and lowlands. The rainforests are vegetation type dominated by broad-leaved trees which form dense upper canopies and consist of a diverse vegetation. The gibbons are omnivores, and their diet includes fruit, leaves, flowers, seeds, tree bark, and tender plant shoots. They are also known to eat insects, spiders, bird eggs, and small birds. The gibbon has a skull that closely resembles the great ape. Their teeth also are similar to the great ape, which consist a U-shaped dental arcade and a thin and light mandible. The incisors are broad and flat, while the molars have low, rounded cusps with thick enamel. They also have large, dagger-like canines in both upper and lower jaw. The dentition formula for the gibbons is 2.1.2.3. The trait of the gibbons dentition formula has adapted to its frugivorous environment.

       The Chimpanzee is a species of apes that is most closely related to humans. Chimpanzees can be found in tropical forests and savannas of Africa from The Gambia to Lake Albert, Lake Victoria and Northwestern Tanzania in the east. The tropical forest has a diverse array of vegetation, and broad-leaved trees that form a dense upper canopy. The savanna has vegetation that grows under hot seasonally dry climatic conditions, and has open tree canopies. The chimpanzee consumes many types of fruits, leaves, figs, nuts, flowers, insects and large animals they hunt and kill. Occasionally male and female chimpanzee's take part in group hunting to kill small mammals like bushpigs and antelope. The jaw of a chimpanzee is heavy and protruding, and the canine teeth are large. Male chimpanzees have larger canines compared to females, and use these in battle with other males during predation. The dentition of the chimpanzee is similar to humans except for the larger canines. The dentition formula for chimpanzees is 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 which equals 32 teeth. This trait for the chimpanzee dentition formula has been acquired due to their environment and their varied diet.

        Due to the information I have collected it seems that primate dentition is influenced based on the environment they are presented with and their diet. The five groups of primates all have very similar diets, and this could cause competition for food with other species. The overall lack of dietary specialization in primates is reflected and expressed in the size and shape of the teeth, because shape and size are directly related to diet. Most of the primates have premolars and molars with low, rounded cusps which allows them to process most types of food. The primates have developed a dentition that has adapted to a varied diet and has contributed to their overall success for millions of years. 

Sources:

www.Lemurworld.com. BioExpedition Publishing, Web. 15 Sept. 2014

Colin Peter Groves. www.Britannica.com. Web. 16 Sept. 2014

Matthew Tschoegl. learni.st. Web. 15 Sept. 2014

www.angrydmonkey.com. Web. 15 Sept. 2014

Dr. Dennis O'Neil. anthro.palomar.edu. 1998-2014. Web. 16 Sept. 2014

Homologous and Analogous

Homologous traits can be found in many tetrapods, and two of those tetrapods are the crocodile and the mouse. The crocodile has four limbs which gives the two front limbs of the crocodile each a humerus radius, ulna and scapula. The two rear limbs of the crocodile each have a fibula, tibia and femur. When we compare this to a mouse,  you will find that the structure of the limbs are similar giving the front two limbs of the mouse a humerus, radius, ulna and scapula. The two rear limbs of the mouse also have a tibia, fibula, femur. The limbs of each organism having the same bone structure in common and each organism has four limbs, meaning that they have a homologus trait. The difference between a mouse and crocodile is that the mouse is a mammal and the crocodile is a reptile. The crocodile has webbing in between each phalange,  giving it the ability to swim.  The phalanges of mice do not have any webbing in between. Generally speaking,  the most common ancestor between these two species would be the lobe-finned fish. If we look at the tetrapod fossil record, you can see that the early tetrapod branched off into four directions which lead to amphibians, mammals, reptiles and birds. The tetrapod was the first four legged vertebrate that carried the trait which was then passed on to mammals and retiles. (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/tetrafr.html)

There are many types of analogous traits that we can find everyday if we look close enough at all the different organisms that exist today. Some of those analogous traits can be found in birds and insects, specifically the wings of a bird and the wings of an insect. The wings of a birds have a much different structure compared to insects , and is similar to a tetrapod. The wings of a bird are made up of a skeletal structure which includes the phalanges, metacarpals, ulna, radius, humerus and scapula. The wings of the bird give it the ability to fly, because the structure has hollow bones, in which the bird evolved to be lightweight and have the ability to fly. Like birds, butterflies also have the ability to fly but do not have the same wing structure. Butterflies wings are made up of two chitonous layers, and thousands of colorful scales,  and many hairs which cover the outside of the wings.  The scales are outgrowths of the body and are plate-like setae. The  butterfly's  wings do not have a skeletal bone structure like birds. The bird's  wings and insect wings are analogous, and share a common function,  but they do not have a common original ancestor that could have evolved or been modified through evolution. I would say that the most common ancestor between insecta and reptilia would be arthropoda. The arthropoda organisms lead to chordata, which then lead to vertebrata  and reptilia. I think the trait of flying or having wings was carried down, and then lead to birds which are considered reptilia.

(http://darwinc.wikispaces.com/Charles+Darwin)

(http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/butterflies/anatomy/Wings.shtml)

(http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/birds/Bird-Anatomy-How-do-birds-fly)

(http://www.untamedscience.com/phylum/chordata/)

(http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIC1Homologies.shtml)

mRNA and DNA

                      ATGATACCAAGCAAGCACCCTGTCAATGACCTTGTAGATCCUCG