Solar radiation can have positive and negative effects on the climate, ecosystem and living organisms on earth. Solar radiation which presents through the visible light helps us see clearly during the day time, and the infrared solar radiation or infrared light provides us heat. Ultraviolet radiation, also known as black light, is a source used for medical equipment sterilization and natural skin tanning. These are the more common positive effects that we get from the sun's radiation. Overexposure to the sun's rays leads to life threatening conditions, such as skin cancer. Too much UV radiation may cause skin cancer and alter your immune system, and make you vulnerable to infectious diseases. It may also cause a person to have cataracts and other eye diseases, and excessive infrared radiation may lead to heat stroke. High levels of solar radiation also impacts the survival of humans by disturbing homeostasis. UVA rays are more dangerous to humans as they have the ability to penetrate through the epidermis (top layer of skin) to the dermis (second layer of skin). UVB rays only have the ability to penetrate the epidermis layer. There is one benefit humans receive from UV radiation and that is the production of vitamin D from UVB rays. If humans get sunburned the UVA and UVB rays can cause the immune system to be suppressed for a short time. UVB rays are the most harmful towards humans, because it can damage our DNA cells and potentially cause genetic problems, and lead to skin cancer. This type of damage can disturb homeostasis and can be life threatening to the human species.

Short term adaption does not pertain to high levels of solar radiation. If a person becomes overexposed to UVA and UVB rays they could become sunburned. If a person has a sunburn then this is a sign that the human has failed to adapt to the high level of radiation. A sunburn simply lets us know we have been overexposed, and can be dangerous as mentioned before. A fair skin person is more likely to get a sunburn when compared to a person of darker skin. A person with high skin pigmentation also known as melanin is less likely to a get sunburn, because melanin helps to protect us from UV rays. Fair skin people do not produce as much melanin causing them to burn easier and may have to use other products to help avoid sunburn. 

A type of facultative adaptation that helps to protect our skin from the harmful UV rays would be tanning. Tanning occurs when exposure to sunlight triggers a protective mechanism through increased melanin on the epidermis layer. Melanin can also act as a natural sunscreen produced by our bodies, and the epidermis layer will remain tanned until no longer being overexposed to UV rays. When people spend more time in the sun during the summer season, it is common to see fair skin people and dark skin people have a darker pigmentation. People who are albino have a genetic mutation preventing their bodies from producing melanin. When people lack the ability to tan they are more likely unable to protect their skin from UV rays. 

A developmental change can be found in populations which have a higher amount of people with darker skin pigmentation. People with darker skin pigmentation again, have higher melanin levels which acts as a natural sunscreen protecting our skin. Populations that have the most exposure to the sun's harmful rays for example, can be in parts of Africa such as the Savannah or plains. There seems to be a direct correlation geographically in those regions that shows a higher density of people with darker skin pigmentation. Too much exposure to UV rays can result in skin cancer, but if there isn't enough exposure a person can become vitamin D deficient which can have negative effects on the body. Populations that lack sun exposure can be prone to developing diseases such as rickets. Populations with lighter skin pigmentation do not produce as much melanin which can be due to less sunlight. 

A cultural adaptation to the harmful UV rays is clothing, shelter and sunscreen lotions. The invention of shelter and clothing made it possible for early homo sapiens to avoid high levels of melanin production. Migration to other environments also contributed to the reduction of high levels of UV exposure. Geographically we can see that populations with lighter skin are in northern regions and populations with darker skin pigmentation are in the southern and central regions near the equator. People that take part in outdoor activities or  play sports are also at risk for high levels of UV ray exposure. The invention of sun screen helps people in certain regions to protect their skin from UV ray exposure. However, it is not considered a solution that completely protects you from skin cancer regardless if you are a dark or light skinned person. 

The benefits of studying human variation is that by studying the changes within a population we can evaluate and see the environmental stressors that can affect that population. We can take a population with certain traits and move them to a new environment other than were they currently live, and eventually we will see an evolutionary adaptation to the new environment. For example, studying rickets in fair skinned populations can help us understand how we need some sunlight exposure in order to avoid the disease. The study might help scientist come up with a solution for populations at risk for rickets in certain regions whether it is a lack of just vitamin D or a lack of sunlight or both, they would be able to narrow it down.

The only time race should be used is when classifying geographic populations of people that have  a similar set of adaptations to an environment. This will allow us to see how our ancestors developed and changed over time, and we can have a better understanding of the origins of that population. I think we will also see what type of changes might occur in that population given the different type of environmental stressors. For example, if we had moved a group of light skin people to Africa in the Savannah, we could see how well the group will adapt compared to dark skin populations that already populate the area. Scientists could see more people with sunburn and higher levels of melanin, and we would see a change in skin color in the group of lighter skin people. I think by studying the environmental influences of a population overtime, there will be changes that occur as the group adapts to those stressors. Some adaptations can become permanent and others can remain until the stressor is removed. For example, being born light or dark skin can be permanent, and people that tan in the sun during summer will remain darker until the increased sun exposure is removed or lessened. The ability to adapt to a new environment has been passed down from previous generations, and connects humans more closely on a genetic level compared to any of the outward differences we may see. By studying the human species we can use this as a tool to help people overcome racism, and help people see how we are in many ways very similar and less different from each other.  

Language

             I found the experiment of not using any verbal form of communication really difficult. I was able to make some sentences using my hands and pointing at certain items or parts of my body to explain what I was trying to say. I think most people take for granted the ability to talk and communicate with each other. Until this experiment, I never really thought about how hard it would be to communicate with another person if you didn't know ASL or another form of communication. This experiment was very similar to a game of charades, because in a sense sometimes I acted out what I was trying to say since I couldn't verbalize it. The partners I used in my experiment did not try to alter their way of communicating with me, instead they just took it as a fun game and kept trying to figure out what I was trying to say. I think the partners I used in my experiment found it to be very difficult to communicate with me since I was not verbalizing anything. I had the idea of learning Morse code and use a pen or pencil to tap it on a table to communicate with each other. It is a form of communication and does not require verbal communication, and is not a form of ASL.

            Unfortunately that would take time to learn because you would have to listen closely to each break in between and you would need to study a chart for the Morse code alphabet. I think the culture that would have to most success in a situation like this would be one that can use symbolic language, because they are able to simply speak and ask the other person a simple question. The other culture may have an easy way to communicate as well if you used some form of universal signs or symbols to communicate with the other culture. For example, if you wanted to know how much pain someone had you could use a scale of 1-10 and draw a face at number 1 which is smiling and as you go down the scale you could draw a really sad or upset face at number 10. If you want to asked a question, how much pain do you have?, you would have to get creative to symbolize the first part and then use your scale and drawings for the rest of the question. I think that could be very challenging to express for some people and it would make communication a lot more difficult. I think the culture that speaks would have that same impression as my partners, it was difficult to understand certain questions I was trying to ask. It took several minutes to understand some questions, but other questions or answers were very easy to express.

            The individuals that might have the hardest time are those who are deaf or non verbal. If you don't know ASL then I think it is very hard for that person and the verbal person to communicate with each other, and it is possible that some people who are deaf became deaf over time and can write on paper what they want to communicate. Others that are deaf over time may also have learned how to read lips and can communicate that way as well. For those who are born deaf, you will just need to find a translator unless you can get really creative with what you want to communicate to them and vice versa. People who are non verbal or born non verbal may have to same issue, either they can write it on paper or someone needs to know ASL. I notice that when people who aren't deaf want to communicate with a deaf person, for some reason they always seem to raise their voice which doesn't help at all. I think people like that are viewed as rude because yelling or raising your voice doesn't always help, and if they are partially deaf it might  work sometimes. It can also be offensive toward the family members of that person who may not be deaf. If an individual is able to speak and is communicating with someone who is not it will go two ways, either they are going to get their message across and have success with what they wanted to say or they will become really frustrated and give up on communicating with that person and have someone else try.

            To go 15 minutes without using physical movements, hand signals or vocal intonation, was not as easy as I thought. This experiment lasted a full 15 minutes, but my partners were just as frustrated as they were in the first 15 minutes. I was able to communicate much easier due to the fact that I was able to speak, but to stay in a consistent mono tone for 15 minutes was a little difficult. One of the difficult parts of the experiment was trying to give instructions and not having the ability to actually show them what I was trying to explain. For example, I was trying to show them how to play a couple guitar chords, but without physically showing them how to press on the chord  it became difficult. After about 6 minutes my partners finally were able to play two chords. I found that my partners were having trouble with understanding my instructions so I had to get creative with my instructions, and had to explain all my instructions in specific details instead of my normal routine. The  more common way to teach would be less specific and you would be able to use your hands to physically show the chords. I chose to use my guitar, because I felt it was going to be the most challenging to explain given our rules for this experiment. My partners found this easier compared to the first experiment and they were able to figure out what I was trying to say in a much shorter amount of time.

            These experiments have shown how hard it really is to communicate with another person if we were given these certain limitations. Communicating with our hands, nodding or smiling all help us when talking with other, because it lets the other person know when we agree or disagree with what is being said. Other signs such as a person's body language could also help in identifying what might be going on or what is being said. A person's body language could let you know when someone is angry, sad or happy. Whether we are non verbal or unable to use any physical movements, I think we could still communicate with each other, it would just take a little longer to get your message across to the other person. Some people can understand just verbal commands better than others, and some people are able to figure out body language better than others. I think the most common benefit to "not" reading body language would be when a person is being interrogated and is not showing signs of nervousness. The person maybe guilty but if he shows no signs or nervousness and there isn't much evidence to support that he or she is guilty, then they might just be released. Another example would be a parent who is being accused of child abuse. If the person is crying, we may think they are innocent when really they could be crying because they are scared and regret the decision they made. Body language can be used for many different reasons and without body language it may alter our interpretation about that person. 

Piltdown Man Hoax

The story of the Piltdown man started in the early 1900s, in the rural county of Sussex, located in southeast England. An amateur archaeologist named Charles Dawson was digging in a village called Piltdown, when he discovered the remains of a skull that was thick and appeared primitive. This discovery would be the first in the Piltdown hoax. Due to the structure of the skull and the ape-like jawbone, and teeth of a human, this was thought to be the connection between apes and humans. The English people of Piltdown took a lot of pride in the discovery of this connection between modern humans and apes, because the earliest Englishman was now discovered. In 1912, we knew very little about human fossils and now they had made a connection that proofed Charles Darwin’s theory to be true. Sir Arthur Smith Woodward an eminent geologist, now realized that this might be a crucial discovery and joined Dawson in digging for more remains. Woodward believed the jaw and skull did belong together, but there was a crucial piece missing which was the canine tooth. A year later a canine tooth was found in Piltdown and matched the jaw based on the shape and size of the tooth. In 1917, another discovery had been made which consist of another skull and tooth, this would be known as Piltdown man two. In 1953, Piltdown man was announced to be a fake and this lead to a scientific world uproar. Kenneth Oakley was the person to put the Piltdown hoax to the test. Oakley applied a chemical test to help authenticate and date the fossils. The test revealed the Piltdown man to be much younger than expected. Other test conducted by the Natural History Museum also revealed that it was bogus, the skull was stained and the teeth had been filed down. The skull was also a different age compared to the jaw, and Oakley revealed a forgery on a level that had never been seen before.  The jaw was not human and could have been orangutan, and the teeth were filed down flat as a disguise. Every single one of the 40 findings at Piltdown had been forged and planted. A prime suspect would be Charles Dawson, because he was the first person to find the fossils and the last. Many people believed Dawson was just trying to make a name for himself as the popular young amateur archeologist that made an amazing discovery. The most famous person linked to the Piltdown hoax was the great writer and doctor, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was the creator of Sherlock Holmes, but most people didn’t know that he was a medical doctor. He was also a person who collected fossils, and could have been one of the perpetrators of one of the greatest hoaxes of all time, the Piltdown Man.

The fact that Piltdown Man was a fraud has been repeatedly used as evidence that the entirety of evolution is a fraud. It is true that Piltdown Man was a fraud and had confused paleontologists for many years. Many scientists accepted it, while others were skeptical from the start. Since nature doesn't lie, many scientists took items from the field and tried to explain the discovery. When something falls too far outside the expected it is thought to be skeptical. In the case of Piltdown Man, some experts in the field almost immediately began to question the find. Piltdown Man was created with the objective of fooling scientists, but it only succeeded for a short time. After 40 years, the fact that it had been revealed as a fake is evidence that science is capable of seeing through illusion. This occurred by acknowledging errors, and refining its ideas by use of the scientific method. It also shows that theories like evolution are based on solid and consistent evidence. Every piece from Piltdown were found fraud by experts in evolution, doing the work of evolutionists.

Scientist had new tests to use against the bones found in Piltdown, which consist of a fluorine absorption test on the fossils. This type of test showed that the fossils were rather young, less than 100,000 years old. They also found that the staining on the bones was superficial, and all the artifacts had also been stained. A steel type of blade was used on the fossils to make cuts, and the teeth of Piltdown Man had also been filed down with evidence of scratch marks, it was made to a specific shape. These teeth had been proven fraud, as they were looked at by a microscope the scientists could see criss-cross scratches. An x-ray showed the lower contact surfaces of the roots were positioned correctly. The x-ray also revealed the roots were unnaturally similar in length and disposition. The jaw bone was from a female orangutan and had been modified to hide the pieces that didn't match with the skull. The front of the jaw had been broken off to hide that fact that it was an ape jaw and not a human jaw. The findings were proven to be geological error. The new technological advances helped scientists in many ways to identify the Piltdown Man as a fraud.

I don't think it is possible to remove human factors in science, because as humans we make mistakes. I think human factors can lead us to curiosity and lead us to finding mistakes from the past, and going back to fix those mistakes or theories. In this case, human factor played a big role in proving the Piltdown Man fossils to be fraud. I think having mistakes in science leads scientist to find new discoveries, and move forward. It may be possible to remove human factors from science, but if we removed it then science would not be science.

I think a life lesson to learn from the Piltdown Man would be to always try and correct mistakes made so we can advance into the future. If false actions are not taken into consideration, then we won't be able to surpass any failures and instead just cover it up. There will always be mistakes made by humans and humans are not perfect, and have many faults. If we fix our mistakes then we can achieve many goals in life.

Source:

http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/piltdown.html

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3202_hoax.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOxHLWMiULU&feature=related

Primates

        The lemur is a primitive primate that can be found in Madagascar. The term Lemur not only applies to the typical lemurs but also to the avahis, sifakas, indri, and aye-aye of Madagascar. The island country of Madagascar is located on the southeastern coast of Africa. The island consist of three parallel longitudinal zones-the central plateau, the coastal strip on the east side, and the low plateaus and plains in the west. The steep eastern plateau has numerous short, torrential rivers which discharge either into the coastal lagoons or directly into the sea over waterfalls or rapids. The western side of the plateau is crossed by longer and larger rivers, which bring large deposits of fertile alluvium down into the plains. The island at one point was covered with evergreen and deciduous forest, but now only little remains except on the eastern escarpment and in some areas in the west. The forest was cut in order to clear for rice fields, to obtain building materials, and to export valuables such as ebony, rosewood, and sandalwood. A small part of the island is covered with prairie grasses and bamboo or small thin trees. The south part of the island is arid and grows thorn trees, giant cacti, dwarf baobab trees, succulents and other drought-resistant plants. Due to the island's isolation many primitive primates have survived and evolved into unique forms. It's been estimated that about 40 species of lemurs live on Madagascar.

The lemur has a unique trait called a "dental comb", which is formed by forward projecting lower incisors and canines. The modified teeth are used by the lemurs for grooming similar to a hair comb and feeding. The structure of the jaw has evolved independently in different types of mammals through convergent evolution. In most mammals the toothcombs include incisors only, but in lemuriform primates the jaw includes incisors and canine teeth that tilt forward by a canine-shaped first premolar. The toothcomb can also be used for food procurement and bark gouging. Due to the islands many plants, trees and shrubs, the lemurs jaw has adapted to the surrounding environment. The lemur has a wide variety of foods such as leaves, fruits, buds, bark and shoots. Lemurs are also known to eat insects and even small animals when fruits are not in season, and when conditions are really harsh lemur's hibernate which helps contributes to their survival. The lemur has a dental formula of 2.1.3.3, and has  reduced incisors and tooth comb when compared to the spider monkey.

       The spider monkey is a smaller primate that can be found in the forest areas of southern Mexico through central and South America to brazil. The habitat of the spider monkey consist of tropical rainforests, evergreen, semi deciduous and mangrove forest. The current forest where the spider monkey's are located is in danger due to the removal of the forest to make way for new farm land. The spider monkeys are well adapted to the high treetops as they are strong and agile. The spider monkey has a wide variety of foods, such as nuts, fruits, leaves, bird eggs, spiders and other insects. The spider monkey or new world monkey, has a dental formula of 2.1.3.3 (two incisors, one canine, three premolars, and three molars). The maxilla and mandible of the monkey are equally the same, and the assortment of teeth allows the primates to have a diverse diet. The incisors teeth of the monkey help with cutting into food, and the canines are stabbing teeth that can be used as a weapon. The premolars and molars are mainly used for shearing and crushing food. The spider monkey has a unique dental formula which has evolved due to the environment the primate lives in. The diet of the spider monkey has also contributed to the evolution of the primates teeth, which is due to the lack of dietary specialization and reflects the shape and size of the primates teeth. This type of dentition was created from the varied diet of the primate, and has contributed to their overall success during the last 50 million years.

        The next primate is the baboon also known as the Old World Monkey. There are 5 different species of baboons and each hierarchical troop of baboons can have up to 300 members. Baboons can be found in the savanna and semiarid environments in Africa to Arabia. Very few baboons can be found in tropical forests. They have also been spotted in some open country parts of Africa in the Sahara southward, and in southern Africa south of the Zambezi River. These locations consist of a desert environment which is common throughout the Sahara. The Sahara is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, Atlas Mountains, Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea. The baboon eats a variety of plants and animals which includes grass and grass seed, fruits, pods, roots, and tubers. They are also known to eat rodents, birds, gazelle fawns, and in some parts of South Africa they kill lambs and are known as crop raiders. The dentition formula for a baboon is 2.1.2.3, which is acquired from the primate having a slightly different diet compared to New World Monkeys. The dental pattern and formation of the jaw are similar to humans with some key changes. The difference between humans and baboons is the more elongate arch form, prominent maxillary canine crowns, and the second and third molar crowns are greater size compared to the first molar crowns. The baboon males have powerful jaws with longer canine teeth, which can be effective weapons in defense against predators and competition with other males. This type of trait was acquired from the environment the baboon lives in. Due to the primate's diet which consist of eating other animals as compared to the New World Monkeys, they have developed the longer canines which help killing the varied animals in their diet. Since the monkey competes with other primates for the same desirable foods  this leads to the killing of other monkeys, young chimpanzees and even flamingos. Therefore, the dentition formula has evolved into a 2.1.2.3 pattern due the varied diet of the baboon.

      The lesser ape also known as a gibbon, is a smaller ape that is found in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. The environment where the gibbon can be found is generally composed of broad-leaved trees and wet tropical uplands and lowlands. The rainforests are vegetation type dominated by broad-leaved trees which form dense upper canopies and consist of a diverse vegetation. The gibbons are omnivores, and their diet includes fruit, leaves, flowers, seeds, tree bark, and tender plant shoots. They are also known to eat insects, spiders, bird eggs, and small birds. The gibbon has a skull that closely resembles the great ape. Their teeth also are similar to the great ape, which consist a U-shaped dental arcade and a thin and light mandible. The incisors are broad and flat, while the molars have low, rounded cusps with thick enamel. They also have large, dagger-like canines in both upper and lower jaw. The dentition formula for the gibbons is 2.1.2.3. The trait of the gibbons dentition formula has adapted to its frugivorous environment.

       The Chimpanzee is a species of apes that is most closely related to humans. Chimpanzees can be found in tropical forests and savannas of Africa from The Gambia to Lake Albert, Lake Victoria and Northwestern Tanzania in the east. The tropical forest has a diverse array of vegetation, and broad-leaved trees that form a dense upper canopy. The savanna has vegetation that grows under hot seasonally dry climatic conditions, and has open tree canopies. The chimpanzee consumes many types of fruits, leaves, figs, nuts, flowers, insects and large animals they hunt and kill. Occasionally male and female chimpanzee's take part in group hunting to kill small mammals like bushpigs and antelope. The jaw of a chimpanzee is heavy and protruding, and the canine teeth are large. Male chimpanzees have larger canines compared to females, and use these in battle with other males during predation. The dentition of the chimpanzee is similar to humans except for the larger canines. The dentition formula for chimpanzees is 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 which equals 32 teeth. This trait for the chimpanzee dentition formula has been acquired due to their environment and their varied diet.

        Due to the information I have collected it seems that primate dentition is influenced based on the environment they are presented with and their diet. The five groups of primates all have very similar diets, and this could cause competition for food with other species. The overall lack of dietary specialization in primates is reflected and expressed in the size and shape of the teeth, because shape and size are directly related to diet. Most of the primates have premolars and molars with low, rounded cusps which allows them to process most types of food. The primates have developed a dentition that has adapted to a varied diet and has contributed to their overall success for millions of years. 

Sources:

www.Lemurworld.com. BioExpedition Publishing, Web. 15 Sept. 2014

Colin Peter Groves. www.Britannica.com. Web. 16 Sept. 2014

Matthew Tschoegl. learni.st. Web. 15 Sept. 2014

www.angrydmonkey.com. Web. 15 Sept. 2014

Dr. Dennis O'Neil. anthro.palomar.edu. 1998-2014. Web. 16 Sept. 2014

Homologous and Analogous

Homologous traits can be found in many tetrapods, and two of those tetrapods are the crocodile and the mouse. The crocodile has four limbs which gives the two front limbs of the crocodile each a humerus radius, ulna and scapula. The two rear limbs of the crocodile each have a fibula, tibia and femur. When we compare this to a mouse,  you will find that the structure of the limbs are similar giving the front two limbs of the mouse a humerus, radius, ulna and scapula. The two rear limbs of the mouse also have a tibia, fibula, femur. The limbs of each organism having the same bone structure in common and each organism has four limbs, meaning that they have a homologus trait. The difference between a mouse and crocodile is that the mouse is a mammal and the crocodile is a reptile. The crocodile has webbing in between each phalange,  giving it the ability to swim.  The phalanges of mice do not have any webbing in between. Generally speaking,  the most common ancestor between these two species would be the lobe-finned fish. If we look at the tetrapod fossil record, you can see that the early tetrapod branched off into four directions which lead to amphibians, mammals, reptiles and birds. The tetrapod was the first four legged vertebrate that carried the trait which was then passed on to mammals and retiles. (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/tetrafr.html)

There are many types of analogous traits that we can find everyday if we look close enough at all the different organisms that exist today. Some of those analogous traits can be found in birds and insects, specifically the wings of a bird and the wings of an insect. The wings of a birds have a much different structure compared to insects , and is similar to a tetrapod. The wings of a bird are made up of a skeletal structure which includes the phalanges, metacarpals, ulna, radius, humerus and scapula. The wings of the bird give it the ability to fly, because the structure has hollow bones, in which the bird evolved to be lightweight and have the ability to fly. Like birds, butterflies also have the ability to fly but do not have the same wing structure. Butterflies wings are made up of two chitonous layers, and thousands of colorful scales,  and many hairs which cover the outside of the wings.  The scales are outgrowths of the body and are plate-like setae. The  butterfly's  wings do not have a skeletal bone structure like birds. The bird's  wings and insect wings are analogous, and share a common function,  but they do not have a common original ancestor that could have evolved or been modified through evolution. I would say that the most common ancestor between insecta and reptilia would be arthropoda. The arthropoda organisms lead to chordata, which then lead to vertebrata  and reptilia. I think the trait of flying or having wings was carried down, and then lead to birds which are considered reptilia.

(http://darwinc.wikispaces.com/Charles+Darwin)

(http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/butterflies/anatomy/Wings.shtml)

(http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/birds/Bird-Anatomy-How-do-birds-fly)

(http://www.untamedscience.com/phylum/chordata/)

(http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIC1Homologies.shtml)

mRNA and DNA

                      ATGATACCAAGCAAGCACCCTGTCAATGACCTTGTAGATCCUCG

Evolution

           The theory that evolution exist was a theory that had been questioned since the late 1700's. George Cuvier was one of the finest minds in history who discovered vertebrate paleontology, and created the comparative method of organismal biology. He had contributed large amounts of research in vertebrate and invertebrate zoology and paleontology. Cuvier was the first scientist to provide firm facts showing that past life forms were extinct. In 1795, Cuvier was invited to Paris by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and was appointed as an assistant, and shortly after became a professor of animal anatomy. Cuvier's scientific theory was that organisms are an integrated whole, and no part of the organism can be modified without impairing the function integrated. He did not believe in organic evolution, and for any changes made to an organism's anatomy it would render it unable to survive. Cuvier had studied mummified cats from Egypt and compared it to their living counterparts showing that there was no difference. The research he conducted was used as support for his claim that life forms did not evolve over time.

(ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/cuvier)

            

            Charles Darwin's theory on traits being passed down from generation to generation through reproduction, was one theory  George Cuvier thought of differently . Cuvier was convinced that by looking at a mummified cat which was mummified an unknown amount of years, and then compared it to a living cat he came up with a theory that life forms don't evolve over time. He has limited his answer to "time", but never states specifically if time was in reference to years, generations or centuries.  This theory seems like a vague answer  to evolution that maybe Charles Darwin discovered to be different. Darwin believed that if the environment is changing, then organisms with the new adaptive traits to the changing environment would have more success with reproduction. The traits can only be obtained by reproduction, and must be passed on from generation to generation. So part of Darwin's theory was that evolution does occur but not within one generation, instead it occurs between several generations.

                

             I think Charles Darwin could not have created his theories of evolution without the theories from George Cuvier. The theories that Cuvier had come up with at the time may have been inspiration for Darwin to test his own theories or challenge the other possibilities regarding evolution. When Cuvier analyzed the difference between the jaw of a mammoth, and a Indian elephant, this type of test is what could have also inspired Darwin to look into evolution. He may have questioned not why the jaws look different, but over time how it evolved into looking different.

           
             When Charles Darwin had read the Bible he was questioning the believe of how all animals and creatures lived on the planet. The Bible suggest that all species somehow appeared on the planet, and did not evolve because they were fixed. His theory was said to be just a theory, and was advised that he should not practice his theories because it was considered to be highly unorthodox. Darwin's theory wasn't necessary against the church, but it mainly went against all of natural history in his time. He knew he could get in trouble, and possibly lose his job if he chose to pursue his theory. Darwin knew the test he conducted, and evidence that was collected would be strong enough to support his theory about evolution.